About Linux

What is Linux?

Linux is the best-known and most-used open source operating system. As an operating system, Linux is software that sits underneath all of the other software on a computer, receiving requests from those programs and relaying these requests to the computer’s hardware.
For the purposes of this page, we use the term “Linux” to refer to the Linux kernel, but also the set of programs, tools, and services that are typically bundled together with the Linux kernel to provide all of the necessary components of a fully functional operating system. Some people, particularly members of the Free Software Foundation, refer to this collection as GNU/Linux, because many of the tools included are GNU components. However, not all Linux installations use GNU components as a part of their operating system. Android, for example, uses a Linux kernel but relies very little on GNU tools.

How does Linux differ from other operating systems?

In many ways Linux is similar to other operating systems you may have used before, such as Windows, OS X, or iOS. Like other operating systems, Linux has a graphical interface, and types of software you are accustomed to using on other operating systems, such as word processing applications, have Linux equivalents. In many cases, the software’s creator may have made a Linux version of the same program you use on other systems. If you can use a computer or other electronic device, you can use Linux.
But Linux also is different from other operating systems in many important ways. First, and perhaps most importantly, Linux is open source software. The code used to create Linux is free and available to the public to view, edit, and—for users with the appropriate skills—to contribute to.
Linux is also different in that, although the core pieces of the Linux operating system are generally common, there are many distributions of Linux, which include different software options. This means that Linux is incredibly customizable, because not just applications, such as word processors and web browsers, can be swapped out. Linux users also can choose core components, such as which system displays graphics, and other user-interface components.

What is the difference between Unix and Linux?

You may have heard of Unix, which is an operating system developed in the 1970s at Bell Labs by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others. Unix and Linux are similar in many ways, and in fact, Linux was originally created to be similar to Unix. Both have similar tools for interfacing with the systems, programming tools, filesystem layouts, and other key components. However, Unix is not free. Over the years, a number of different operating systems have been created that attempted to be “unix-like” or “unix-compatible,” but Linux has been the most successful, far surpassing its predecessors in popularity.

Who uses Linux?

You’re probably already using Linux, whether you know it or not. Depending on which user survey you look at, between one- and two-thirds of the webpages on the Internet are generated by servers running Linux.
Companies and individuals choose Linux for their servers because it is secure, and you can receive excellent support from a large community of users, in addition to companies like Canonical, SUSE, and Red Hat, which offer commercial support.
Many of the devices you own probably, such as Android phones, digital storage devices, personal video recorders, cameras, wearables, and more, also run Linux. Even your car has Linux running under the hood.

Who “owns” Linux?

By virtue of its open source licensing, Linux is freely available to anyone. However, the trademark on the name “Linux” rests with its creator, Linus Torvalds. The source code for Linux is under copyright by its many individual authors, and licensed under the GPLv2 license. Because Linux has such a large number of contributors from across multiple decades of development, contacting each individual author and getting them to agree to a new license is virtually impossible, so that Linux remaining licensed under the GPLv2 in perpetuity is all but assured.

How was Linux created?

Linux was created in 1991 by Linus Torvalds, a then-student at the University of Helsinki. Torvalds built Linux as a free and open source alternative to Minix, another Unix clone that was predominantly used in academic settings. He originally intended to name it “Freax,” but the administrator of the server Torvalds used to distribute the original code named his directory “Linux” after a combination of Torvalds’ first name and the word Unix, and the name stuck.

How can I contribute to Linux?

Most of the Linux kernel is written in the C programming language, with a little bit of assembly and other languages sprinkled in. If you’re interested in writing code for the Linux kernel itself, a good place to get started is in the Kernel Newbies FAQ, which will explain some of the concepts and processes you’ll want to be familiar with.
But the Linux community is much more than the kernel, and needs contributions from lots of other people besides programmers. Every distribution contains hundreds or thousands of programs that can be distributed along with it, and each of these programs, as well as the distribution itself, need a variety of people and skill sets to make them successful, including:

• Testers to make sure everything works on different configurations of hardware and software, and to report the bugs when it does not.
• Designers to create user interfaces and graphics distributed with various programs.
• Writers who can create documentation, how-tos, and other important text distributed with software.
• Translators to take programs and documentation from their native languages and make them accessible to people around the world.
• Packagers to take software programs and put all the parts together to make sure they run flawlessly in different distributions.
• Evangelists to spread the word about Linux and open source in general.
• And of course developers to write the software itself.

How can I get started using Linux?

There’s some chance you’re using Linux already and don’t know it, but if you’d like to install Linux on your home computer to try it out, the easiest way is to pick a popular distribution that is designed for your platform (for example, laptop or tablet device) and give it a shot. Although there are numerous distributions available, most of the older, well-known distributions are good choices for beginners because they have large user communities that can help answer questions if you get stuck or can’t figure things out. Popular distributions include Debian, Fedora, Mint, and Ubuntu, but there are many others.

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How to run windows programs from windows 10's bash shell

In the Creators Update, Windows 10’s Bash shell now allows you to run Windows binaries and standard Command Prompt commands, right from Bash. You can run both Linux and Windows programs from the same Bash shell, or even incorporate Windows commands into a Bash script.

This only works in the Creators Update—you can’t do this on the current Anniversary Update. So if you want to do this, you’ll need to be running the Insider Preview builds until the Creator’s Update is released to everyone.

What You Need to Know

Here are some basic details you need to know about this feature:

• User Account: Programs launched from the Bash shell will run as if they were launched by the current Windows user account.
• Permissions: These programs will have the same permissions as the Bash.exe process. So, if you want these commands to have Administrator access, you’ll need to run the Bash shell as Administrator.
• Working Directory: Windows programs share the same “working directory” as the Bash shell. So, if you run a command that lists the contents of the current directory, it will list the contents of the current working directory in the Bash shell. Use the cd command to change working directories.

With that in mind, let’s take a look at how to run a program.

How to Run a Windows Program

To run a Windows program, enter the path to the program’s .exe file in teh Bash shell. Remember that your Windows C: drive is available at /mnt/c in Bash. The Bash environment is also case-sensitive, so you have to specify the correct capitalization.

Let’s say you wanted to launch the Ping utility located at C:\Windows\System32\PING.EXE. You’d run the following command:

/mnt/c/Windows/System32/PING.EXE

The following command wouldn’t work, because Bash is case-sensitive:

/mnt/c/windows/system32/ping.exe

This is a bit more complicated if the path contains complex characters like spaces and brackets, like the Program Files folders. You have to “escape” spaces, brackets, and other complex characters by prefixing them with a “\” character.

For example, let’s say you wanted to run the Internet Explorer program located at C:\Program Files (x86)\Internet Explorer\iexplore.exe. You’d have to run the following command in Bash:

/mnt/c/Program\ Files\ \(x86\)/Internet\ Explorer/iexplore.exe

Note the “\” before the space and bracket characters. These characters must be “escaped” or Bash won’t realize the characters are part of a file path.

How to Pass an Argument to a Command

The Bash shell passes arguments directly to the commands you execute.

For example, if you wanted to ping example.com, you’d run:

/mnt/c/Windows/System32/PING.EXE example.com

Or, if you wanted to open the Windows hosts file in Notepad, you’d run:

/mnt/c/Windows/System32/notepad.exe "C:\Windows\System32\drivers\etc\hosts"

You use the standard Windows file path when passing a file path directly to a Windows program. That’s because Bash passes the argument directly. Notepad.exe and other Windows programs expect a Windows file path.

How to Run a Built-in Command

Some Windows commands aren’t .exe files, but are built into the Command Prompt itself. For example, this includes the dir command you might normally run in a Command Prompt. To run such a command, you need to run the cmd.exe binary associated with the Command Prompt and pass it the command as an argument with /C, like so:

/mnt/c/Windows/System32/cmd.exe /C command

For example, to run the dir command built into the Command Prompt, you’d run the following command:

/mnt/c/Windows/System32/cmd.exe /C dir

How to Add Directories to the Path

The Windows Services for Linux environment treats Windows executables similar to the way it treats Linux binaries. This means that you can add a directory containing .exe files to the path and then execute those .exe files directly. For example, to add the System32 directory to your path, you’d run:

export PATH=$PATH:/mnt/c/Windows/System32

You could then run Windows .exe files located in the System32 folder directly, like so:

PING.exe example.com

notepad.exe

cmd.exe /C dir

How to Pipe the Output of One Command to Another

The output of a Windows command can be piped to a Linux command, and vice versa. For example, you can use the ipconfig.exe -all command to list details about your network interfaces and pipe it to the Linux grep command to search the output. For example, to list all information about your connection and search for sections matching “IPv4 Address”, you’d run:

/mnt/c/Windows/System32/ipconfig.exe -all | grep "IPv4 Address"

That’s the basic process. These commands will also work when incorporated into a Bash script, so you can write a Bash script that incorporates both Windows commands and Linux utilities. If it runs in the Bash shell, it will work in a Bash script.

And, if you want to go the other way, you can use the “bash -c” command to run Bash commands from the standard Windows Command Prompt.

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A work of computer

This document has been created to give you a better understanding of how the personal computer works and what it does each time you press the power button.

Powering on the computer

When you first press the power button, the computer sends a signal to the computer power supply, which converts the alternating current (AC) to a direct current (DC). This supplies the computer and its components with the proper amount of voltage and electricity.

Once the computer and its components have received ample power and the power supply reports no errors it sends a signal (using transistors) to the motherboard and the computer processor (CPU). While this is happening, the processor will clear any leftover data in the memory registers and give the CPU program counter a F000 hexadecimal number. This number is the location of the first instruction and tells the CPU that it's ready to process the instructions contained in the basic input/output system (BIOS).

BIOS and the POST

When the computer first looks at the BIOS, it begins the power-on self-test (POST) sequence to make sure the components in the computer are present and functioning properly. If the computer does not pass any of these tests, it will encounter an irregular POST. An irregular POST is a beep code that is different from the standard one or two beeps. For example, an irregular POST could generate no beeps at all or a combination of different beeps to indicate the cause of the failure.

If the computer passes POST, it looks at the first 64-bytes of memory located in the CMOS chip, which is kept alive by the CMOS battery even when the computer is turned off. This chip contains information such as the system time and date and information about all the hardware installed in your computer.

After loading the CMOS information, the POST will begin inspecting and comparing the system settings with what is installed in the computer. If no errors are found it will then load the basic device drivers and interrupt handlers for hardware such as the hard drive, keyboard, mouse, floppy drive. These basic drivers allow the CPU to communicate with these hardware devices and allow the computer to continue its boot process.

Next, the POST will check the real-time clock (RTC) or system timer and the computer system bus to make sure both of these are properly working on the computer. Finally, you'll get a picture on your display after the POST has loaded the memory contained on the display adapter and has made it part of the overall system BIOS.

Next, the BIOS checks to see if it's performing a cold boot or warm boot (reboot) by looking at the memory address 0000:0472. If it sees 1234h the BIOS knows that this is a reboot and skips the remainder of the POST steps.

If 1234h is not seen, the BIOS knows that this is a cold boot and will continue running additional POST steps. Next, it tests the computer memory (RAM) installed in the computer by writing to each chip. With early computers, you can see it performing the step as it counts the total installed memory as it's booting.

Finally, the POST will send signals to the computer floppy, optical, and hard drive to test these drives. If all drives pass the test, the POST is complete and instruct the computer to start the process of loading the operating system.

Booting the operating system

After the computer has passed the POST, the computer will start the boot process. This process is what loads the operating system and all of it's associated files. Because Microsoft Windows is the most commonly used operating system, this section will cover the process of loading Microsoft Windows.

The BIOS first hands control over to the bootstrap loader, which looks at the boot sector of the hard drive. If your boot sequence in CMOS setup is not setup to look at the hard drive first, it may look at the boot sector on any inserted floppy disk drive or optical disc first before doing this.

In this example, the Microsoft Windows XP NT Loader (NTLDR) is found on the boot sector and tells the computer where to find the remaining code on the hard drive. Next, Windows loads the ntdetect.com file, which displays the Windows splash screen and loads the Windows Registry. After loading the Registry, Windows begins to load dozens of low-level programs that make up the operating system into memory. Many of the initially loaded programs are what allow Windows to communicate with the essential hardware and other programs running on the computer.

After the Registry has loaded the initial basic hardware devices, it begins to load Plug-and-Play devices, PCI, and ISA devices. After loading all these devices, Windows loads full support of the hard drive, partitions, and any other disk drives and then moves to all other drivers that have been installed.

Finally, after successfully completing the above steps any additional required services are loaded and Windows starts.

Hardware devices communicating with the computer

After the computer has loaded the operating system, hardware attached to the computer must be able to communicate with the CPU. Hardware communication is done by using an interrupt request (IRQ). Each time hardware needs the attention of the computer the interrupt controller sends the request (INTR) to the CPU to stop what it is doing to process the request. Anything that was being currently done by the CPU is put on hold and stored as a memory address in the memory stack and is returned to after the interrupt request is processed.

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Learn about computer

This document is for anyone interested in learning more about their computer and how it works. Here you will find all related documents throughout Computer Hope that can teach you everything you want to know about your computer.

Computer Overview

Understanding each of the major hardware components that make up a computer is always a good first step in learning more about computers. To learn more about each of the components in the computer, its connections, as well as a full explanation of each of the internal parts of a computer.

15 computer topics

1. Transistors - The computer contains millions of transistors, which are used to create machine language using logic gates that turn on and off the circuits.
2. Machine language - All computers and electronic devices communicate in binary, which is a series of 0's and 1's or Off and On electrical signals. All software written on your computer is created in a high-level programming language that humans can understand. When complete, the program is compiled into a low-level machine language that computers understand.
3. ASCII codes - Each binary 0 or 1 is considered a bit and each number, letter, or other character is made up of eight bits (one byte). A common method for storing and editing text is done with ASCII codes, which is one byte of binary. For example, the lowercase letter "a" has a ASCII code decimal value of 97, which is 01100001 in binary.
4. Motherboard - The Motherboard is the largest circuit board in the computer that holds and connects everything together. Without the motherboard, components like your processor and memory could not communicate with each other.
5. Computer memory - Not to be confused with disk storage, the computer memory (RAM) is volatile memory and is used to store currently running applications. When the computer is turned off, all data in the memory is lost.
6. Computer disk storage - A non-volatile type of memory, disk storage like a hard drive is what stores your information even when the computer is turned off. All of your personal files, documents, songs, photos, etc. are stored in a storage device.
7. ROM - Another type of memory, read-only memory (ROM) is a memory chip that has data which can only be read. Most computers today have a programmable read-only memory (PROM), which is still read-only, but can be re-programmed if needed through a firmware update.
8. Memory capacity - All memory and storage has a total capacity that is written using abbreviations such as KB, MB, GB, and TB.
9. Processor - The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the component responsible for processing all instructions from software and hardware.
10. Software and Hardware - Software is instructions and code installed into the computer, like the Internet browser you're using to view this page. Hardware is a physical device you can touch, like the monitor you're using to display this page.
11. Input/Output - A computer works with a human by inputting data using an input device such as a keyboard, having the processor process that data, and then displaying the output on an output device such as a monitor. The printer is also another output device and is what allows you to get a hard copy of documents and pictures stored on the computer.
12. Expansion cards - An expansion card is a card that can be added to the computer to give it additional capabilities. A video card, modem, network card, and sound card are all examples of expansion cards. However, many computers may also have on-board devices, such as a sound card and network card that are built onto the motherboard. For a laptop computer, additional cards are added into the PC Card slot.
13. Programming - All software running on the computer has been created using a programming language by a computer programmer.
14. Operating system - Every computer must have an operating system for software to communicate with the hardware. For example, most IBM compatible computers run the Microsoft Windows operating system and have the option to run alternative operating systems, such as a Linux variant. Apple computers only run macOS.
15. Network - Computers communicate with other computers over a network using a network interface card (NIC) or Wi-Fi that connects to a router. There are two primary types of networks: a local area network (LAN) and a wide area network (WAN). The Internet is also considered a network, which uses the TCP/IP protocol.

How does a computer work?

Knowing how the computer works after you press the power button is also an excellent way to learn more about your computer.

How to use a computer

If you are new to using a computer and need additional help or want to gain a better understanding on how to use a computer see our how to use a computer document.

Computer history

The history of computers and how they have progressed over the years is another great way get a better understanding of computers. We've listed several thousand key events in our computer history section and list hundreds of computer pioneers who have made the computer industry what it is today.

Keep informed

Computers and their hardware and related software are constantly evolving. Try to keep as up-to-date as possible by reading computer related news, blogs, RSS feeds, newsletters, forums, and following computer people on social networking sites like Twitter.

Online free books

There are hundreds of thousands of online computer books and computer related e-books that can be downloaded. See the eBook definition for a full listing of places to find books online for free and legally.

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How to become a hacker

Although hacker has many definitions, we believe most people asking this question are interested in malicious coding. Computer Hope does not teach or condone cracking, stealing, breaking, or otherwise illegal cyber activity. However, a hacker may also be defined as someone with an advanced understanding of computers and programming. If you want to learn more about this side of hacker, see the suggestions below.

Learn more about computers

Computer basics - Having a good understanding of a computer, its components, and how it works is essential for anyone, not just hackers.

 

Books - Make it a goal to read computer books that cover your interests. Visiting popular online bookstores, such as Amazon, and browse through the top 100 books on your subject is a great place to start. Audible has an enormous selection of e-books, if you prefer that method of reading.

 

Know the jargon - The computer industry has thousands of acronyms and terms.

 

Participate in forums - The Internet is full of online forums, where thousands of other users participate with each other in answering questions or talking about what they love to do. Participating in these forums will not only allow you to test your understanding of the subject, but also learn from others.

 

Build a computer - If you want to learn more about the hardware aspect of a computer, there is nothing more educational than putting one together. Not only will this help broaden your knowledge of computer hardware, but can help with diagnosing hardware problems, and teach you more about how computers work. There are plenty of websites with instructions on how to build your own machine.

Pick up a programming language

Learning how software works by studying a programming language is an invaluable tool. It teaches you how to create your own programs, and how to debug them. It also gives you a better understanding of how programs work. Our programming language definition lists many of the more popular programming languages.

Also, learning scripting languages such as Perl and PHP and even the basics of HTML web design, are advantageous for anyone interested in setting up and tweaking websites.

If you need more experience with programming, creating your own open source project or helping with another open project can be a helpful learning experience. Creating your own website can also be another great learning experience as it shows the details behind website design and setup.

Learn alternative operating system

Many people today run some version of Microsoft Windows, which is fine for home and office use, but it is also a good idea to learn alternative operating systems such as Linux. Learning a Linux distro not only helps broaden your experience, but is a necessity when wanting to navigate Linux based servers running websites and other web services.

Tip: If you have access to a server that is hosting your website, you may have access to SSH, which allows you to connect to a server and is another good way to learn the Linux command line.

If you are new to Linux, Ubuntu is a good distro for new users to try. This distro of Linux can also be run by booting it off of a CD. However, if you want a full experience, it is better to install Ubuntu or another distro on the computer.

Also, having a good understanding of the Linux command line commands is also a must. See our Linux page for a full listing of commands and the syntax for those commands.

Learn more on networking

Networks run the Internet and connect home or office computers together. It is important to know as much as you can on how networks operate, including basics like an IP address, OSI, port, protocol, router, and subnet mask.

Also, setting up your own home network, especially a network with multiple computers and different operating systems, can be a very helpful.

Related Questions

Will you teach me to hack?

Everything you need to know is mentioned above.

How old do you have to be to hack?

There is no age requirement for someone to become a hacker. It often comes down to that individual's drive and overall knowledge of computers, networking, and programming.

How will I know when I am a hacker?

If you are doing or have already done all of the above, you are consider a hacker. If you are hacking for good you are considered a white hat hacker if you are doing anything malicious you are considered a black hat hacker.

How do I know if someone else is a hacker?

Anyone who is good with computer, programming, and networking may be considered a hacker. However, trying to determine if a malicious hacker hacked into your computer is difficult, since it usually requires a hacker or computer expert to detect malicious activity.

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How to fix your computer if it's running slowly

Tip: This page only covers an overall slow computer and not a computer that has a slow boot up or slow Internet.

Below are steps for Microsoft Windows users that can help speed up the computer or determine why the computer is running slow.

Reboot

If your computer has not been rebooted recently, make sure to reboot it before following any of the steps below.

Background programs

One of the most common reasons for a slow computer are programs running in the background. Remove or disable any TSRs and startup programs that automatically start each time the computer boots.

Tip: To see what programs are running in the background and how much memory and CPU they are using, open Task Manager. If you are running Windows 7 or higher, run Resmon to get a better understanding of how your computer is being used.

If you have an antivirus scanner on the computer, spyware protection program, or another security utility, make sure it is not scanning your computer in the background. If a scan is in progress, it can decrease the overall performance of your computer. If this is the case, allow the scan to complete, and the computer's performance should improve.

Delete temp files

As a computer runs programs, temporary files are stored on the hard drive. Deleting these temp files can help improve computer performance.

First, we suggest using the Windows Disk Cleanup utility to delete temporary files and other files no longer needed on the computer.

Unfortunately, the Disk Cleanup may not delete every file in the temp directory. Therefore, we also suggest deleting temporary files manually. To do this, open the Start menu and type %temp% in the Search field. In Windows XP and prior, click the Run option in the Start menu and enter %temp% in the Run field. Press Enter and a Temp folder should open. You can delete all files found in this folder and, if any files are in use and cannot be deleted, they can be skipped.

Free hard drive space

Verify that there is at least 200-500MB of free hard drive space. This available space allows the computer to have room for the swap file to increase in size, as well as room for temporary files.

• Determining available hard drive space.
• Regaining computer hard drive space.

Bad, corrupted or fragmented hard drive

• Run ScanDisk, chkdsk, or something equivalent to verify there is nothing physically wrong with the computer's hard drive.
• Run Defrag to help ensure that data is arranged in the best possible order.
• Use other software tools to test the hard drive for any errors by looking at the SMART of the drive.

Scan for malware

Today, spyware and other malware is a big cause of many computer problems, including a slow computer. Even if an antivirus scanner is installed on the computer, we recommend running a malware scan on the computer. Use the free version of Malwarebytes to scan your computer for malware.

Scan for viruses

If your computer is infected with one or more viruses, this can cause your computer to run slow. If your computer does not have an antivirus program installed, you can run Trend Micro's free Housecall online utility to scan for viruses on your computer, as well as remove them. It is also recommended that you install an antivirus program for active protection against viruses.

Hardware conflicts

• Verify that the Device Manager has no conflicts. If any exist, resolve these issues as they could be the cause of your problem.

Update Windows

• Make sure you have all the latest Windows updates installed on the computer.
• If you are on the Internet when your computer is slow, make sure all browser plugins are up-to-date. You can also try disabling browser plug-ins to see if one of them is causing the slowness.

Update your drivers

Make sure you have the latest drivers for your computer hardware, especially the latest video drivers. Having out-of-date drivers can cause an assortment of issues, including slow performance.

Reboot computer again

If you have done any of the above steps but your computer is still acting slow try rebooting the computer again at this point.

Memory upgrade

If you have had your computer for more than two years, you may need more memory. Today, we suggest computers have a minimum of 1GB of memory (RAM) for 32-bit system and 2GB for a 64-bit system. By having enough memory for programs to run within memory, your computer will not need to swap information stored in memory to the swap file. If the hard drive light is constantly active, it can be an indication the computer is frequently swapping information between your memory and hard drive.

Hard drive upgrade

One of the biggest bottlenecks of a computer is the hard disk drive. For anyone with a slow computer or just looking for the best component to upgrade, upgrading from a hard drive to a Solid State Drive (SSD) can significantly improve the performance of a computer.

Run Registry cleaner

We normally do not recommend Registry cleaners. However, if you have followed all of the above steps and your computer is still slow, try running a Registry cleaner on the computer.

Computer or processor is overheating

Make sure your computer and processor is not overheating. Excessive heat can cause a significant decrease in computer performance because most processors automatically reduce the speed of the processor to help compensate for heat-related issues.

Dust, dirt, and hair can also constrict proper airflow inside your computer, which can cause a computer to overheat. Make sure your computer case is clean and fans are not obstructed.

Erase computer and start over

If none of the above solutions resolve your issues, another option is to either reinstall Windows or erase everything and then start over.

Erasing everything and starting over can increase performance by getting rid of old software or drivers that may be on the computer and causing the computer to be slow. Installing a fresh copy of Windows, software programs, and the latest drivers help verify there are no software related issues causing your computer to be slow.

Hardware issues

Finally, if your computer is still slow after trying all of the above recommendations, there may have a more serious hardware related issue, such as a failing component in the computer. Examples of failing hardware could include a failing or bad hard drive, CPU, RAM, motherboard, or another component.

You can run hardware diagnostic tests using the Ultimate Boot CD (UBCD) utility. This utility provides many diagnostic tests that you can run and determine if your computer has a bad piece of hardware.

Old computer

If your computer is more than five years old, the age of the computer could be the cause of the slow performance. As more advanced software programs are released, they are optimized to run more efficiently on newer computers. Older computers are not able to run these new programs as well, which can cause them to perform more slowly. We recommend that you consider purchasing a new computer or accept that your computer is not going to be as fast as a newer computer.

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Disclaimer

Disclaimer for Psyco-Techno

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Update

This site disclaimer was last updated on: Saturday, January 7th, 2017
· Should we update, amend or make any changes to this document, those changes will be prominently posted here.

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Linux vs Windows

Users who are considering making a change from Windows to Linux or Linux to Windows commonly want to know the advantages and disadvantages of each of the operating systems. Below is a chart to help illustrate the major advantages and disadvantages of each of these operating systems.

Topic	Linux	Windows
Price	The Linux kernel, and the GNU utilities and libraries which accompany it in most distributions, are entirely free and open source. You can download and install GNU/Linux distributions without purchase. Some companies offer paid support for their Linux distributions, but the underlying software is still free to download and install.	Microsoft Windows usually costs between $99.00 and $199.00 USD for each licensed copy. However, Windows 10 is being offered as a free upgrade to current owners of Windows 7 or Windows 8.1 if they upgrade before July 29, 2016.
Ease Of Use	GNU/Linux operating systems have a steeper learning curve for the average user. They frequently require a deeper understanding of the underlying system to perform day-to-day functions, and troubleshooting technical issues can be a more intimidating and complicated process than on Windows. However, some distributions such as Ubuntu and Linux Mint are designed specifically to ease the transition from Windows to a Linux environment.	Windows is one of the easiest desktop operating systems to use. One of its primary design characteristics is user-friendliness and simplicity of basic system tasks. This is considered a positive by users who want their system to "just work", but more proficient users may be frustrated by oversimplification of system tasks at the expense of fine-grained control over the system itself.
Reliability	Linux is notoriously reliable and secure. It has a strong focus on process management, system security, and uptime.	Although Microsoft Windows has made great improvements in reliability in recent years, it's considered less reliable than Linux. Many of the sacrifices it makes in the name of user-friendliness can lead to security vulnerabilities and system instability.
Software	There thousands of programs available for Linux, and many are available as easy-to-install software packages — all for free. Also, many Windows programs can be run on Linux using compatibility layers such as WINE. Linux supports a wider array of free software than Windows.	Windows commands the highest number of desktop users, and therefore the largest selection of commercial software. It also has the largest selection of video games, although Linux has made significant gains on this front — especially with the continued development of Linux-compatible gaming platforms such as Steam.
Software Cost	Many of the available software programs, utilities, and games available on Linux are free and open source. Even complex applications such as GIMP, Open Office, and Star Office are available for free.	Although there are many free Windows programs, utilities, and games, the majority of the programs are commercial.
Hardware	Fifteen years ago, Linux struggled to support new hardware. Manufacturers often considered Linux support a secondary concern (if they considered supporting it at all), and device drivers were created only by enthusiasts who devoted their own time and resources to making Linux compatible with new hardware. Since then, the Linux user base has grown exponentially. Today, the majority of hardware manufacturers give Linux support the same priority as Microsoft Windows.	Windows has a massive user base, so it would be madness for a consumer hardware manufacturer not to support Windows. As a Windows user, you can rest assured that your operating system is compatible with any hardware you might buy.
Security	Linux is a highly secure operating system. Although attack vectors are still discovered, its source code is open and available for any user to review, which makes it easier to identify and repair vulnerabilities.	Microsoft has made great security improvements over the years. But as the operating system with the largest user base, especially among novice computer users, it is the primary target for malicious coders. As a result, of all major operating systems, Microsoft Windows is the most likely to be the victim of viruses and malware.
Support	There is a massive amount of online support available for Linux, including here on Computer Hope.	Microsoft Windows offers integrated and online help systems, and there are thousands of informative books about Windows available for every skill level.
Use Cases	Linux is used by corporate, scientific, and academic organizations of every size. It's used to power the development machines and servers at Google, Facebook, Twitter, NASA, and the New York Stock Exchange, just to name a few. On the desktop, it is used by technically proficient users who prioritize system security and reliability, and by enthusiasts who want to learn more about computers and how they work. It's also used to give new life to older hardware, enable low-budget computing projects to succeed, and serve as the operating system on single-board computers such as the Raspberry Pi.	Microsoft Windows is usually the operating system of choice for gamers, novice users, and business users who rely on Microsoft software. It doesn't run well on older hardware, however. Many Windows users are thrilled with the changes that Microsoft has introduced with Windows 10, so if you've never used it, now is a great time to try it out.

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Mac vs PC

The Mac vs. PC debate is one of the most controversial topics when talking about computers. This page is meant to give a comparison between Apple Macintosh computers and a PC running Microsoft Windows. It should be used to help educate users looking to buy a new computer and not as a method of declaring the best of the two. You should base your buying decision on what you believe works best for you.

Topic	Mac	PC
Security	Compared to a PC running Windows, Apple Macintosh computers are less vulnerable to viruses and other malware. However, viruses are beginning to target Apple computers due to the lack of experience that manufacturers have when it comes to fighting viruses on the Mac operating system.	Many people today are using computers running some version of Microsoft Windows, which makes it a large target for attackers. Windows computers are very susceptible to viruses and malware, especially if not protected by an antivirus program.
Price	Although many people may argue "you get what you pay for," when compared to a PC, an Apple computer, its peripherals, upgrades, and repairs are often more expensive than a PC. However, Apple computers are usually built pretty well, with quality components.	The vast majority of PC's and their peripherals today are cheaper and more affordable when compared to a new Apple Macintosh computer.
Operating System	The Apple Macintosh operating system is often a much cleaner, faster performing, and more stable operating system than all versions of Microsoft Windows.	Although Microsoft has improved its operating system with Windows 7 and Windows 10, many PC manufacturers still bundle bloatware with their computers. With this extra software and drivers from dozens of manufacturers, the Windows operating system can be slower in performance and less stable.
Software	The available software options for an Apple computer are greatly increasing, with many software titles that are exclusive to Apple, as well as many that also run on Microsoft Windows. However, there are still more software programs available for Windows computers, largely due to the higher number of Windows computers on the market. Through the use of Boot Camp, an Apple user can run Windows and many of its programs.	More people are using and developing software for PC's running Windows, which means there is a larger selection of software available for Windows. There is also an almost endless supply of 100% free programs, some that run on Apple computers, but the majority of which run on Windows computers only.
Quality	The Apple Macintosh computer is often built with a lot better materials when compared to most PC's.	To help keep the overall costs low, some PC manufacturers build their computers from plastics and other cheaper materials when compared to a Mac. However, there are also PC manufacturers who meet and sometimes exceed the quality of Apple computers and Apple still does use plastic in some of its products.
Options	Today, Apple computers have many more options available to choose from, compared to even a few years ago. However, there are still more options for Windows computers, due largely to the sheer variety of components available for Windows computers. Many of these components also work with Apple computers, though.	PC's are available in almost any imaginable configuration, color, size, etc. If you can think of something that is not available, someone could likely build it for you.
Boot time	Apple computers can often boot faster than a PC, due to excellent operating system coding and the efficient hardware for fast boot times.	PC's running Windows and built with hardware designed by dozens of different companies usually have slower boot times. However, with the newest version of Windows and more efficient hardware, PC boot times can be just as fast as an Apple computer.
Upgrades	Apple computers are being built with more interchangeable parts, making them easier to upgrade than they used to be. However, PC's are still often more upgradeable than Apple computers. Also, upgradeable parts for Apple computers can be more expensive than equivalent parts in a PC.	Just about every part of a PC can be upgraded. Also, because of openness and competition between hardware vendors, parts are usually cheaper and more readily available for the PC.
Drivers	Much of the hardware and drivers are developed by Apple. Because of this, you are less likely to encounter driver related issues.	PC's use hardware from dozens of manufacturers and use dozens of different drivers. Therefore, it is more likely you will encounter driver issues. Although with the latest version of Windows, Microsoft has resolved many of the driver issues that plagued previous versions.
Gaming	Although many (but not all) game developers release games for both the Mac and PC, most of them still release their games and updates to the PC first. In some cases, you may have to wait years for a game to be released for a Mac if it ever releases.	The PC is king when it comes to games and online gaming. Many of the more popular computer games are released for the PC first.
Repair	Many of the new MacBooks and other Apple products are starting to use glue to hold components inside the computer in place. Glue can make repair difficult and expensive.	Although PC laptops can be more difficult to repair than desktop computers, their components are often easier and cheaper to repair or replace than those in a MacBook or Apple computer. Note: Some of the newer PC laptops are also starting to glue parts as they become thinner.
Touch	There has not yet been an Apple computer (not including their iPhones or iPads) that have touch abilities.	PC's are the only computers you can purchase that have touch screen capabilities.

Additional disclaimers

Not all PC's are the same - There are dozens of PC manufacturers and thousands of models of computers, which means not all of the above may apply to your PC or the PC you may want to buy.

My Apple can run Windows - Microsoft Windows can be run on Apple computers using Boot Camp, which means not everything above may apply to your Mac. In the case of gaming, you may be able to run the latest games on your Mac using Boot Camp. However, Boot Camp is not perfect, and it does not mean every game will be able to run on your computer since PC games are not developed with Apple hardware in mind. It is also not unlikely to encounter problems and have performance issues.

Windows XP is not Windows 7, Windows 8, or Windows 10 - Windows XP is over 15 years old and comparing a Windows XP computer to a new MacBook computer is like comparing a Ferrari to a Ford Pinto. When comparing any technology, age is an important factor since newer technologies like SSD vs. HDD can make a huge difference in performance. If you are trying to decide between purchasing a PC or a Mac, make sure you are comparing the latest computers and that they have similar hardware components. For example, if you are looking at a Mac with an SSD and a PC with an HDD, the PC will be cheaper, but it is also going to be slower.

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Computer video card buying tips

With the popularity of computer gaming video cards are becoming the most commonly upgraded components in a computer. However, purchasing a computer video card can sometimes be a very confusing and frustrating task. Before purchasing a video card, keep the below recommendations in mind.

Connection

Today, there are three bus (slots) a video card is capable of connecting to. Although with most modern computers today it'll be either PCI-E or AGP. Before buying a new video card make sure you get a video card that will be compatible with the available slots in your computer.

PCI-E or PCI-Express was approved as a standard on July 2002 and is the latest computer bus found in computers. PCI Express is designed to replace PCI and AGP and is available in different formats: x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, x16, and x32. See the PCI Express definition for a full description and related links.

AGP or Advanced Graphics Port, is a new standard available on Pentium II and later motherboards. Introduced in 1997, AGP is a 32-bit Bus designed for high demanding video cards. AGP has a direct line to the computer memory, which allows 3-D elements to be stored in the system memory instead of the video memory and is available in three different standards (1.0, 2.0, and 3.0). See the AGP definition for a full description and related links.

PCI or Peripheral Component Interconnect, was first introduced in 1992. Although still in use today, most computers today use AGP or a PCI-E slot instead of PCI. See the PCI definition for a full description and related links.

Power supply

Today's video cards are one of the must power hungry devices in your computer. Make sure that your power supply meets the requirements of your video card. Many video cards will require a 500W or more power supply. If your computer doesn't meet the power requirements you'd need to upgrade the power supply before being able to install the new video card.

Memory

Another important consideration when purchasing a video card is the amount of video memory the card has. Like system memory, the more memory located on the computer video card in most cases the greater capability of the video card. Today, we suggest at the minimum a video card with 256MB of video memory.

Other considerations

Below are some additional considerations you may want to think about when buying a video card.

Ports - Many newer video cards only have a DVI connection or both a VGA and DVI connection. If you're using a video card with a monitor that has a VGA connector it can still be used, but you'll need to also purchase a DVI to VGA converter if not included with your video card.

Chipset - There are dozens of different video card manufacturers. However, there are only two major chipset manufacturers; Nvidia and ATI. Although both are great manufacturers there can be great big differences between the two as far as performance. Before buying any video card it's a good idea to look up a hardware review on the video card before purchasing it if you're concerned about it's performance.

Size - If you have a smaller computer case fitting some of the new video cards in the computer many not be possible. Video cards today are much larger than older video cards because of their increased capabilities and need for cooling fans. Make sure your case is going to have room for a new video card. The only way to do this is to open the case and physically look.

Warranty - How long is the warranty and what does it cover.

Support - Is the technical support number a free number and is it open 24 hours, 7 days a week? You can find contact information for all major video card manufacturers on our video card contacts page.

Price range

The price range can vary depending on the brand of video card, amount of memory, the interface used, and other available options. In general, prices can range from $100 to $1,000 USD.

Where to purchase

For best price we often recommend that users purchase all computer hardware online. You'll be able to look at other customer reviews and get a much lower price. If you're uncomfortable buying online or want to talk to a sales rep you can always visit a local retail store and then buy online.

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Computer software utility buying tips

There are some consideration to make before purchasing any computer software utility. Below is a list of considerations to make when buying any utility for your computer.

Documentation

Documentation is an important consideration when looking at a utility program that you may be unfamiliar with. While many utilities such as a virus protection program may only require very little documentation, other utilities such as backup software or other involved software may require more documentation because of the complexity and available options provided by that software.

Hardware

When purchasing a program that relies or requires hardware, such as a backup utility, ensure that you meet the hardware requirements or your hardware is compatible with the software. For example, not all backup utilities are compatible with all backup tape drives.

Operating System

Utilities such as a virus protection program or crash protection utility are very dependent on the operating system. If you have Windows 7, make sure you purchase a program that is designed for Windows 7. If a program is purchased that is not designed for the operating system you are using, you may experience problems unless updates are available.

Support

Verify that the developer of the software utility you are purchasing from has the needed support. Complex utilities such as a tape backup software may require help from a support staff.

Updates

Many utilities require updates; before installing or running the utility on your computer, ensure that all updates have been obtained from the software developer first to prevent possible corruption or data loss.

Warranty

While not all companies provide this option, see if the company provides any warranty program if software is to become lost, corrupted or bad because of the utility being run.

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USB buying tips

Today, there is a wide variety of available USB devices, and purchasing a new USB device an be confusing at times. Below we have listed various information, tips, and help for purchasing computer USB devices.

USB devices

With the popularity and ease of connecting and installing a USB device, there is a very large selection of USB devices that can be connected to the computer. Below is a listing and a brief description of available USB devices out today.

Backup drives

Drives such as the Iomega Zip drive are an excellent USB device as they can be used to transfer large files between two computers or to allow for an easy to use and relatively fast backup solution.

Camera

Digital cameras are becoming a popular peripheral and used product. A USB camera allows good transfer rates when sending pictures from the camera to the computer, and will be easy to connect to the computer.

CD Drive

USB CD Drives are becoming a great solution for users who want to add an additional drive or a CD-RW drive to the computer or portable computer. USB CD drives offer a decent speed and are easy to connect through Windows. It is important to note these drives cannot be used to restore software through MS-DOS.

Game device

Because of the popularity of games, a USB game device such as a USB joystick or USB racing wheel is an excellent solution for any computer gamer. These devices allow for fast response times as well as ease of connectivity and installation.

Hard drive

Like CD drives and Backup drives, a USB hard drive is another excellent consideration when looking at upgrading or adding a new hard drive to the computer. With a USB hard drive you have the ease of connecting the drive to different computers as well as the ability to connect and disconnect the drive while it is on.

USB hub

When more than one or two USB devices are connected to the computer it may be required that a USB hub be purchased. The hub allows for additional devices to be connected to it. The USB standard allows for up to 127 different devices.

Monitor

While the monitor is not only USB a USB monitor allows for users to have additional features, such as setting up the monitor display settings through software instead of with buttons on the monitor. Most USB monitors also have built-in hubs that also allow for additional USB devices to be connect to the monitor.

Mouse

A USB mouse is a great solution for users that may be using their serial ports and their PS/2 ports. A USB mouse also allows for a faster response time, especially if the mouse is an optical mouse. This is an excellent solution for users who are FPS (First Person Shooter) game players.

Printer

A USB printer allows for a user to connect a printer or multiple printers to a computer. With a USB printer, the user will experience a faster response time as well as additional features not found on a standard printer.

Scanner

Like the USB printer, a USB scanner is an excellent solution for users who just need to hook up a scanner quickly or move a scanner from computer to computer. USB scanners offer a faster transfer rate when compared to a serial or parallel scanner and are very easy to install.

Speakers

While USB speakers may not be easier to install than standard speakers, USB speakers can offer a wide range of additional options not available with standard speakers.

Considerations

Availability

Before purchasing a USB device, ensure that USB is available on your computer and properly working. Additional troubleshooting and help with USB can be found on our USB page.

If you have utilized all of your USB ports, you need to purchase a USB hub to connect additional USB devices to the computer.

Requirements

When looking at the USB device, ensure that you meet the system requirements. Many USB devices today require at least Windows 98 or higher.

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